SOAP PREPARATION

Introduction

Soap is one of the commercial products essential to our health as it promotes cleanliness and preserves our skin from the scorching heat of the sun and from external pollutions such as dust, germs and bacteria.

Soap is one of the oldest and most important cosmetic and personal care products. Soap is a product used in conjunction with water for washing and cleaning. It usually comes in a solid molded form but may also come in the form of liquids dispersed from dispensers. Soap typically contains surfactants that, when applied to a soiled surface in combination with water wet the dirt and effectively holds particles in suspension so it can be rinsed off with clean water.  

Soap is produced by the saponification of triglycerides. In saponification, triglycerides reacted with a strong base such as potassium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide to produce glycerol and fatty acids salt. The salt of the fatty acids is called soap. Fatty acids are seldom found as free molecules in nature but are most often a part of a larger molecule called triglycerides. Triglycerides consist of a three-membered carbon chain with a fatty acid bonded to each of the three carbon atoms in the glycerol backbone. The bond between the fatty acid and the glycerol backbone is referred to as an ester linkage. In the saponification process the ester linkage is broken to form glycerol and soap.

Objectives

1.      Understand the rationale behind the use of the different types of ingredients in a soap formulation.

2.      Understand the acid-base reaction (saponification process) by which soap is produced.

3.      Evaluate the quality of the products that have been produced.

Materials

Olive oil, vegetable shortening, coconut oil, potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, glycerin, alcohol, castor oil, distilled water, fragrance and essential oils, colourants, honey, oatmeal, tea, coffee, cocoa, vitamin E and camphor.

Apparatus

Beakers, soap molds, water bath, measuring cylinders, glass rods, evaporating dish and thermometer.

Amount of ingredients for a bar of soap:

Coconut Oil	19.6%	15.68 g
Olive Oil	19.6%	15.68 g
Vegetable Shortening	29.6%	23.68 g
Sodium Hydroxide	9.9%	7.92 g
Distilled Water	20.9%	16.72 g
Honey	0.17%	0.136 g
Oats	q.s	q.s
Colourants	q.s	q.s
Fragrance/Essential Oils	q.s	q.s

*Weight of soap: 80g

Procedures

1.      The molds for the soaps are cleaned and dried completely. The mold is greased with petroleum jelly.

2.    The fats and oils for the soaps which are coconut oil, olive oil and vegetable shortening are weighed using weighing scale.

3.     The fats and oils are then mixed in a beaker and the mixture is heated to around 40-50℃. The mixture is then removed from heat once there are one liquid oil phase.

4.     Sodium hydroxide and water are weighed. Sodium hydroxide is then added into the water and stirred until it solubilise. Since the mixture produces heat, it is cooled down after stirring.

5.  The dissolved sodium hydroxide is then poured into the warm oil mixture in the beaker. The oil became opaque as soon as sodium hydroxide is added. They are mixed in circular motion constantly for 15 minutes and then left to rest for a while. It is then mixed again until thickened.

6.    Mixing is stopped when the mixture formed trace. Fragrance, colourant, oats and honey are then added in the mixture. The mixture is mixed well.

7.      The soap mixture is then poured into the mold. The mold is covered with a cloth and left to hardened for 24-48 hours.

8.      After a week, evaluation of products are conducted.

Discussion

Saponification is a reaction which an ester is heated with an alkali, such as sodium hydroxide which then producing a free alcohol and a carboxylate salt, especially alkaline hydrolysis of a fat or oil to make soap. Soap molecules have both properties polar and non-polar. The cleansing action of soap is determined by its polar and non-polar structures. The long hydrocarbon chain is non-polar and hydrophobic (repelled by water) while the "salt" end of the soap molecule is ionic and hydrophilic (water soluble).

In this soap making, the chemicals or items used are olive oil, vegetable shortening, coconut oil, sodium hydroxide, distilled water, fragrance and essential oils, colorants, honey, oatmeal and coffee. All these ingredients have their own functions and uses in making the soap.

The table below represents the functions of each ingredient:

Ingredients	Functions
Olive oil	-As the main ingredient -As a humectant -Moisturize the skin
Vegetable shortening	-For hardening and conditioning
Coconut oil	-To produce lather and form more bubbles -To add hardness to the soap
Sodium hydroxide	-Important for the saponification process -To dissolve grease, oils, fats and protein     based deposits
Distilled water	-To dissolve sodium hydroxide for   preparation of saponification
Fragrance and essential oils	-To improve the scent of the soap
Colorants	-To improve the appearance and  attractiveness
Honey	-Increase lather production -As antimicrobial
Oatmeal	-As exfoliation -As moisturizing
Coffee	-As exfoliation

The evaluation tests that had been carried out were the scent produces by the soaps, the pH evaluation for the soap, the lathering effect of the soaps and the melting point of both soaps as well as the time taken for it to melt.

 

For both soap A and soap B, they produced the pleasant scent as we inserted fragrance and essential oils after the trace are formed during the soaps making. For the pH evaluation, we use the litmus paper to indicate the pH properties of the soap. When blue litmus paper is used, it remains unchanged meanwhile for red litmus paper, it turned blue . This shows that the soaps have a pH within the range of above 7 until 14 where it is in alkaline range. The soaps have the lathering effect as we rub our hand with the soap. The bubbles that produce are white, foamy and quite a lot as the ingredients such as coconut oil and honey play the role in producing the lather.

For soap A, the melting point is 54^oC and it takes 18 minutes to melt while for soap B, the melting point is 58^oC and it takes 12 minutes to melt. However, the phase during this temperature, most part of the soap is still in solid phase but got some that already melt. This shows that the soap has high melting point. This is because the higher the melting point of the soap, the more stable is the soap so that when we leave it in the room temperature it will not melt and break easily.

For addition, both soap A and B do not cause any skin irritation and both are effective in removing dirt or greasy oils. As we know, soap has both the polar and non-polar properties. The hydrophilic ends of the soap molecules will attached to the water surrounding meanwhile the hydrophobic ends of it will stick to the dirt or oils. The removal of all this dirt and oils is assist by the motion of rubbing on skin in order to effectively remove the dirt. The foam is created when the surface tension of water is reduced and air is mixed in causing bubble formation and also by the addition of coconut oil it forms more bubbles. 

Lastly, the addition of oatmeal and coffee is to produce exfoliation. It is important as it involves the removal of dead skin cells on the skin’s outermost surface. This somehow can improve the function of the soap. Besides, soap also should have moisturizing and conditioning properties to have better effect on skin when used.

Only red litmus paper turned blue.

Soaps produced foam.

Shortcomings

When we were preparing the ingredients of the soap, we weighed each of the ingredients according to the calculation that have been made.  However, this leads to the incorrect composition of the intended product due to the properties of some ingredients that tends to stick on the beaker. This causes the inaccuracy of the soap formulation. Thus, the preparation must be calculated in excess to avoid any inaccuracy.

Moreover, when we were mixing the ingredients, the mixture of our ingredients take a longer time to harden due to the inaccuracy of the weighed ingredients as the ingredients stick on the beaker. Hence, make our soap take a long time to harden.

      Also, we had problems heating the water bath because it took a long time for the water to be heated. Thus, the water bath need to be heated as soon as experiment is to be started because it take a long time to heat the water.

Conclusion

In conclusion, we are able to understand the function of each ingredient in a soap formulation and also the rationale of using these ingredients. Besides, we can understand the saponification process to produce soap. The reaction between ester and alkali allowed the process to occur. From the evaluation tests, the soaps produced have good scent, are alkaline, able to form foam and have high melting point.


References

1.      Anne Marie Helmenstine, P. (2017, May 12). Saponification Definition and Reaction. Retrieved from ThoughtCo.: https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-saponification-605959

2. Cosmetics Info. (2016). Retrieved from Cosmetics Info web site: http://www.cosmeticsinfo.org/ingredient-alphabetical

ROUGE PREPARATION

INTRODUCTION 

Cosmetics are any material that intended to be applied to the human body for cleansing, beautifying, promoting attractiveness, or altering the appearance without affecting the body’s structure or functions of the human body. There are many types of cosmetic products had been made nowadays that help people to stay healthy and beautiful.

One of the cosmetics is rouge, also known as blusher. Rouge or blusher is a types of makeup applied to the cheeks to give colour to the face and more dimensions to the cheekbones. Sometimes rouge will be applied together with lipstick and also eye makeup. The reason is to balance and harmonize the colour on the people’s face. Usually rouge or blusher is used by women.

Rouge or blusher comes in different colours but the most common colour of blusher is pink or red. Rouge or blusher can come in the forms of cream, powder and also liquid suspension. People like to use pressed powder more as it is long-lasting and can be apply to all skin types.

OBJECTIVE 

1. To formulate dry powder rouge and cream powder rouge.
2. To formulate cream rouge from 2 commercial hard lipstick preparations.
3. To study the factor affecting the colour shading in powder and cream.
4. To evaluate the effect of storage condition on the final product.  

PROCEDURE 

Powder preparation :

1. 60g of the basic powder formulation are prepared without colouring agent (P0).
2. 9.6g of kaolin, 28.8g of talc, 3.6g of magnesium stearate, 3g of zinc oxide, 6g of rice starch, 3g of magnesium carbonate and 3.6g of titanium dioxide are weighed using a weighing balance and are mixed together by using mortar and pestle. The mixture is pushed aside.
3. Another 60g of a powder rouge containing 4% of an insoluble grey colouring agent (P4) are prepared.
4. 9.6g of kaolin, 28.8g of talc, 3.6g of magnesium stearate, 3g of zinc oxide, 6g of rice starch, 3g of magnesium carbonate and 3.6g of titanium dioxide are weighed using a weighing balance and 2.4g of colourant (grey) is added.
5. Another 4 powder rouge is prepared by diluting the 4% powder rouge accordingly to obtain various shades of colour.
6. The concentration of colouring agent is 0.5-4%.

TABLE 1: Formulation of basic powder

Basic powder formulation		60g of P0 (0%)	60g of P4 (4%)
Kaolin	16%	9.6g	9.6g
Talc	48%	28.8g	28.8g
Magnesium stearate	6%	3.6g	3.6g
Zinc oxide	5%	3.0g	3.0g
Rice starch	10%	6.0g	6.0g
Magnesium carbonate	5%	3.0g	3.0g
Colourant (Grey)	4%	-	2.4g
Titanium dioxide q.s ad	100%	3.6g	3.6g

TABLE 2: Concentration of colouring agent for powder rouges

Code	Colourant (%)	Amount of P4 (g)	Amount of P0 (g)	Total amount of rouge (g)
P1	4	20	-	20
P2	3	15	5	20
P3	2	10	10	20
P4	1	5	15	20
P5	0.5	2.5	17.5	20
	Total (g)	52.5 (~60)	47.5 (~60)	-

Cream preparation :

1.  80 g of the basic cream formulation (C0) was calculated as shown in Table 3.
2. Cocoa butter, beeswax, cetyl alcohol, wool fat, liquid paraffin and borax were weighed accordingly to respective calculated weight.
3. All of the ingredients then heated at water bath one after another. Finally, enough water was added to the mixture.
4. The cream then left to cool by stirring.
5. Next, the formulation of 50 g of cream rouge having 2% soluble colouring agent (C2) was calculated as shown in Table 1.
6. Cocoa butter, beeswax, cetyl alcohol, wool fat, liquid paraffin, borax and colorants were weighed accordingly to respective calculated weight.
7. All of the ingredients then heated at water bath one after another. Finally, enough water was added to the mixture.
8. The cream then left to cool by stirring.
9. After that, four other cream rouges were prepared by diluting the 2% cream rouge accordingly to obtain various shades of colour.
10. The concentration of colouring agent is 0.5% - 2%.

TABLE 3: Formulation of basic cream 

Basic cream formulation		80 g of C0 (0%)	50 g of C2 (2%)
Cocoa butter	5%	4.0 g	2.5 g
Beeswax	12%	9.6 g	6.0 g
Cetyl alcohol	1%	0.8 g	0.5 g
Wool fat	5%	4.0 g	2.5 g
Liquid paraffin	30%	24.0 g	15.0 g
Borax	1%	0.8 g	0.5 g
Colourant (Blue)	2%	-	1.0 g
Waters qs ad	100%	36.8 g	22.0 g

TABLE 4: Concentration of colouring agent for cream rouges

Code	Colourant (%)	Amount of C2 (g)	Amount of C0 (g)	Total amount of rouge (g)
C1	2	20	-	20
C2	1.5	15	5	20
C3	1	10	10	20
C4	0.5	5	15	20
	Total (g)	50	20 (~80)	-

Cream Rouge (from left: C1, C2, C3, C4)

DISCUSSION

We have observed and recorded our findings based on the effect of storage of the preparations and the criteria that we set up for evaluation. We evaluated our product after a month of storage in the dark and exposed to sunlight. The criteria is numbered as follows:

1. Physical appearance of the product.
2. Skin irritancy after being applied on the skin.
3. Duration of how long the product lasts on the skin after applying.
4. Removability of the product when it is to be cleaned off from the skin.

TABLE 5: Evaluation of powder rouge

Product	Criteria	Evaluation
P1	1	Smooth and soft appearance
	2	Does not cause any skin irritation
	3	Lasts for 6 hours
	4	Easy to clean and remove from skin
P2	1	Smooth and soft appearance
	2	Does not cause any skin irritation
	3	Lasts for 6 hours
	4	Easy to clean and remove from skin
P3	1	Smooth and soft appearance
	2	Does not cause any skin irritation
	3	Lasts for 6 hours
	4	Easy to clean and remove from skin
P4	1	Smooth and soft appearance
	2	Does not cause any skin irritation
	3	Lasts for 6 hours
	4	Easy to clean and remove from skin
P5	1	Smooth and soft appearance
	2	Does not cause any skin irritation
	3	Lasts for 6 hours
	4	Easy to clean and remove from skin

TABLE 6: Evaluation of cream rouge

Product	Criteria	Evaluation
C1	1	Greasy but have smooth surface
	2	Does not cause any skin irritancy
	3	Lasts for 5 hours
	4	Easy to clean and remove from skin
C2	1	Quite greasy, oil is present on the surface but creamy consistency is preserved
	2	Does not cause any skin irritancy
	3	Lasts for 3 hours
	4	Easy to clean and remove from skin
C3	1	Quite greasy, oil is present on the surface but creamy consistency is preserved
	2	Does not cause any skin irritation
	3	Lasts for 2 hours
	4	Easy to clean and remove from skin
C4	1	Greasy but has smooth surface
	2	Does not cause skin irritancy
	3	Lasts for 2 hours
	4	Easy to clean and remove from skin

TABLE 7: Effect of storage condition on products

Product	Stored in the dark	Stored in exposed sunlight
P1	Colour intensity maintains the same as prepared in the lab	Colour intensity maintains the same as prepared in the lab
P2	Colour intensity maintains the same as prepared in the lab	Colour intensity maintains the same as prepared in the lab
P3	Colour intensity maintains the same as prepared in the lab	Colour intensity maintains the same as prepared in the lab
P4	Colour intensity maintains the same as prepared in the lab	Colour intensity decreases over time
P5	Colour intensity maintains the same as prepared in the lab	Colour intensity maintains the same as prepared in the lab
C1	Colour intensity maintains the same as prepared in the lab	Colour intensity increases over time
C2	Colour intensity maintains the same as prepared in the lab	Colour intensity increases over time
C3	Colour intensity maintains the same as prepared in the lab	Colour intensity increases over time
C4	Colour intensity maintains the same as prepared in the lab	Colour intensity maintains the same as prepared in the lab

            By analyzing the result of the effect of storage condition on products, we are able to see that the best storage condition for each product is to be stored in the dark. Also, we can conclude that powder rouges are more stable compare to cream rouges especially when products are stored in exposed sunlight. When product is exposed to sunlight, the products are susceptible to chemical reaction due to the UV rays from the sunlight, change in temperature, change in moisture and microbial contamination. Most of the cream rouges have increased colour intensity over time, we can assume that when cream rouges were exposed under sunlight, water from the product evaporates to the air, resulting the decreased volume of water in the product resulting in increased of colorant concentration. As the colorant concentration increases due to the evaporation of water, the colour intensity of the products increases.

          As for one of the powder rouge product which is P4, one of our group members exposed the product to sunlight leaving the container cap opened. We can assume that water vapour in the air was absorbed into the powder rouge resulting in decrease of colour intensity over time due to increase of volume of water in the product.

Colour  shading for cream rouge

                                    
 C1                              C2                                C3                            C4

Colour shading for powder rouge

P1                      P2                        P3                         P4                      P5

            By tabulating the colour shading of each product, we have concluded that the shades of products at higher percentages of colorant  are darker and more prominent compared to the shades of products at lower percentages of colorant which are lighter and less prominent. For the darker shades such as product P1, P2 and P3, they were more visible when they were put on fairer skins whereas product P4 and P5 were more visible on darker skins. It is also the same for product C1 and C2, they are more visible on fairer skin whereas C3 and C4 are more visible on darker skins. Thus, in order to produce powder rouges and cream rouges, it is important to know how to manipulate the percentage of colorant used in a product to produce different variations of colour and shades of the intended product.

Discuss the effect of soluble and insoluble dyes in powder and in cream rouges.

The effects of using soluble dyes in cream rouge are very much preferred. Water and oil are used in preparation of cream rouge, therefore soluble dyes must be soluble either in water or in oil in order to produce a smooth, even cream. However, the usage of insoluble dyes would make the cream rouge formulation smeared with uneven colour marks or spots. This would affect the appearance of the cream itself.

On the other hand, the effects of insoluble dyes are preferred more in powder rouge. Due to the solid properties of powder rouge, it is more suitable to use insoluble dyes due to the its ability to be evenly spread and dispersed in the powder rouge. Also, insoluble dyes will not interact with the moisture on the skin which can give it a more long lasting effect on the skin. However, using water soluble dyes in powder rouge can be troublesome. If there are any moisture that are present in the powder formulation, the water soluble dye can migrate towards the moist area and form precipitates which will ruin the formulation.

The function of each ingredients and the rationale of using those ingredients.

   The ingredients used in the formulation of powder rouge are kaolin, talc, magnesium stearate, zinc oxide, rice starch, magnesium carbonate and titanium dioxide. The function and rationale of using the listed products are as follows. Kaolin is used to prevent the caking of powder and ensure a smooth, even finish of product. Talc is used due to its various function such as it absorbs moisture, soften and smoothens product, prevent caking and making makeup to be opaque. Magnesium stearate helps to keep emulsions from separating into their oil and liquid components and also generally used for its lubricating properties. Zinc oxide acts as a bulking agent, a colorant, a skin protectant and as a sunscreen. As for magnesium carbonate, it acts as an absorbent, buffering, bulking agent and pH adjuster. For rice starch, it acts as an absorbent. Titanium dioxide absorbs, reflects or scatters light including UV radiation from the sun to prevent deterioration of product.

    As for cream rouge, the ingredients are cocoa butter, beeswax, cetyl alcohol, wool fat, liquid paraffin, borax, Colorona Light Blue, and water. The function and rationale of using the listed products are as follows. Cocoa butter is used to form a barrier on the skin’s surface by slowing the loss of water from the skin. Beeswax is used to keep an emulsion from separating into its oil and liquid components especially for products that needs a creamy consistency. Cetyl alcohol is used to alter the thickness of liquid products and to increase the capacity or to stabilize foams. For wool fat, it is to moisturize the skin and acts as a lubricant on the skin surface which produces a soft, smooth appearance of the skin. Also, it helps to form emulsion and blends all ingredients together better. Liquid paraffin is used as an emollient to treat dry skin. Borax is used to prevent bacterial growth in the product to avoid any spoilage. It is also used to control pH of the product. Colorona Light Blue is the colorant of this product. Water acts as a solvent and forms an emulsion where the combination of oil and water is required to formulate a creamy product.

SHORTCOMINGS

When we were preparing the ingredients for the cream rouge, we weighed each ingredients strictly according to the calculated cream formulation. However, this leads to the incorrect composition of the intended product due to the properties of some ingredients that tends to stick on to the weighing boat. This causes inaccuracy in cream rouge formulation. Therefore, preparation of ingredients must be done in excess.

Besides, when we were preparing the powder rouge, we were unable to mix the basic powder formulation evenly with the 4% powder rouge due to the formation of small granules when mixing. This causes the uneven powder rouge texture. Thus, it is preferable to sieve the powdered ingredients beforehand so that the formation of small granules when mixing can be avoided.

Also, during the mixing of powder rouges in the pestle and mortar, the powdered mixtures tend to stick on the surface of the pestle and mortar. This causes the uneven mixing of the powder rouges.  Hence, the correct technique of using the pestle and mortar needed to be learned beforehand not to forget to wipe the surface of pestle and mortar from any moisture to avoid powdered ingredients sticking to the surface.

CONCLUSION

As conclusion, we able to formulate the two types of rouges; powder and cream rouges from the experiment. We formulated different concentrations of the colourant used that affect the colour shading in both powder and cream rouges. The higher the concentration of the colourant used, more intense the colour shading. Besides, we found that the storage condition of the rouges also affect the colour shading of the final product. Therefore, to retain the colour of the rouges, it is better to not expose them to the sunlight.

REFERENCE

1. Campaign for Safe Cosmetics. (2017). Retrieved from Campaign for Safe Cosmetics web site: http://www.safecosmetics.org/

2. Cosmetics Info. (2016). Retrieved from Cosmetics Info Web site: http://www.cosmeticsinfo.org/ingredient-alphabetical

3. James Bennett. (2017). cosmetics and skin. Retrieved from cosmetics and skin web site: http://cosmeticsandskin.com/bcb/rouge.php

4. LEAFtv. (2017). Retrieved from Leaf Group Ltd. Web site: https://www.leaf.tv/articles/types-of-cosmetic-products/